ELECTRODE STRUCTURES AND SURFACES FOR Li BATTERIES

ABSTRACT

This invention relates to positive electrode materials for electrochemical cells and batteries. It relates, in particular, to electrode precursor materials comprising manganese ions and to methods for fabricating lithium-metal-oxide electrode materials and structures using the precursor materials, notably for lithium cells and batteries. More specifically, the invention relates to lithium-metal-oxide electrode materials with layered-type structures, spinel-type structures, combinations thereof and modifications thereof, notably those with imperfections, such as stacking faults and dislocations. The invention extends to include lithium-metal-oxide electrode materials with modified surfaces to protect the electrode materials from highly oxidizing potentials in the cells and from other undesirable effects, such as electrolyte oxidation, oxygen loss and/or dissolution.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of International ApplicationNo. PCT/US2011/040652, filed on Jun. 16, 2011, which is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/044,038,filed on Mar. 9, 2011, now abandoned, which claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/414,561, filed on Nov. 17, 2010,each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST

The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant toContract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government andUChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to electrode materials for electrochemical cellsand batteries. Such cells and batteries are used widely to powernumerous devices, for example, portable electronic appliances andmedical, transportation, aerospace, and defense systems.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to positive electrode materials (cathodes) forelectrochemical cells and batteries. More specifically, the inventionrelates to lithium-metal-oxide electrode materials, predominantly thosehaving layered-type structures, rock salt-type structures, orspinel-type structures, or combinations or modifications thereof, thatcontain manganese ions. The invention extends to includelithium-metal-oxide electrode materials with surface protection, forexample, with metal-oxide, metal-fluoride or metal-phosphate layers orcoatings to protect the electrodes from highly oxidizing potentials inthe cells and from other undesirable effects, such as electrolyteoxidation, oxygen loss, and/or dissolution. Such surface protectionenhances the surface stability, rate capability and cycling stability ofthe electrodes of this invention. The invention also extends toelectrode precursor materials comprising manganese ions and to methodsfor fabricating lithium-metal-oxide electrode materials and structuresusing these precursor materials. The electrodes of this invention can beused either in primary cells and batteries or rechargeable cells andbatteries, notably for lithium cells and batteries.

In one aspect, the present invention provides a positive electrode foran electrochemical cell. The electrode is formed by contacting ahydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material with one or more metal ions(e.g., in an aqueous or a non-aqueous solution or a solid statereaction) to insert the one or more metal ions into thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide precursor material; heat-treating theresulting product (e.g., at a temperature in the range of about 300 toabout 1000° C., preferably about 400 to about 950° C.) to form apowdered metal oxide composition; and forming an electrode from thepowdered metal oxide composition (e.g., by casting a compositioncomprising the metal oxide powder and a binder onto a substrate, such asa metal foil). The hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material preferablyhas a layered-type structure that comprises hydrogen, lithium,manganese, and oxygen ions, wherein the oxygen ions are preferablyarranged in alternating layers forming octahedra and trigonal prisms inthe crystal structure of the material. The powdered metal oxide productcomposition that results from the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxideprecursor material can have, for example, a layered-type structure, aspinel-type structure, a rock salt-type structure, or anintegrated/composite structure, comprising one or more of thesestructure types.

For this invention, layered compounds and structures refer broadly tolithium metal oxides LiMO₂ or substituted derivatives, in which M is oneor more metal ions, the structures of which comprise alternating layersof lithium ions interspersed with layers containing other metal ions, M.The layers containing the M metal ions can also contain lithium ions.Typical non-limiting examples of layered materials include LiCoO₂ inwhich layers of lithium ions alternate with layers of cobalt ions in aclose-packed oxygen array; and Li₂MnO₃ in which layers of lithiumalternate with layers of manganese and lithium ions in a close-packedoxygen array. Rock salt compounds and structures refer broadly to metaloxides, MO, in which M is one or more metal ions (including lithium)that have close-packed structures typified, for example by NiO orsubstituted derivatives thereof. Spinel compounds and structures referbroadly to the family of close-packed lithium metal oxide spinels,LiM₂O₄, or substituted derivatives thereof in which M is one or moremetal ions, as typified by the spinel system Li_(1+x)Mn_(2−x)O₄(0≦x≦0.33). It is to be understood that, in practice, deviations fromideal crystallographic behavior of these structure types arecommonplace, such as variations in composition, in atomic positions andcoordination sites within crystal structures, as well as in the siteoccupancy of atoms and in the structural disorder of atoms on differentsites. Such crystallographic deviations and imperfections are thereforenecessarily included within the definitions provided above and withinthe spirit and scope of this invention.

In one embodiment, a positive electrode of the invention is formed froma lithium-manganese-oxide precursor compound that comprises lithium,manganese, and oxygen ions in a layered-type structure wherein lithiumions occupy octahedral sites in lithium-rich layers, and lithium andmanganese ions occupy octahedral sites in manganese-rich layers thatalternate with the lithium-rich layers within a close-packed oxygenarray. In this embodiment, the precursor compound is contacted with anaqueous or non-aqueous solution that contains an acid and the one ormore metal ions to be inserted. The formation of thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material by hydrogen donation from theacid, occurs concurrently with the insertion of the one or more metalions. Next, the resulting product is heat-treated to form a powderedmetal oxide composition, and then an electrode is formed from thepowdered metal oxide composition. As described above, thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide precursor material comprises hydrogen,lithium, manganese and oxygen ions, in which the oxygen ions may bearranged in alternating layers of octahedra and trigonal prisms in thecrystal structure of the material or, alternatively, in some otherpacking arrangement of the ions. The extent to which ahydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material is formed as an intermediateproduct from the lithium-manganese-oxide precursor compound during theformation of the powdered metal oxide electrode composition depends on anumber of factors, such as the extent of hydrogen ion exchange, theconditions of the processing treatment, and the like. Nevertheless, itis believed that an intermediate hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxidematerial plays an important role in effecting ion-exchange reactions andthe subsequent formation of the powdered metal oxide electrodecomposition and structure during its synthesis.

Preferably, the precursor compound comprises Li₂MnO₃ orLi[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂. In some preferred embodiments, the Li₂MnO₃precursor is cation or anion deficient. In some preferred embodiments,the first precursor compound also includes up to 25 atom percent of oneor more other metal ions, preferably transition metal ions, replacingmanganese ions and/or lithium ions in the manganese-rich layer of thematerial. For example, the one or more other transition metal ionsreplacing the manganese ions can comprise a Ti ion, a Zr ion, or both.

In the positive electrodes of the present invention the manganese andnon-lithium metal ions can be partially disordered between lithium-richlayers and manganese-rich layers.

Preferably, the one or more metal ions utilized in forming a positiveelectrode of the present invention are selected from an alkali metal ion(e.g., Li, Na, or K), an alkaline earth metal ion (e.g., Mg or Ca), atransition metal ion (e.g., Ti, V, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zr, or Mo), or othersuitable metal ions (e.g., Al).

Preferably, the lithium and manganese ions in thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material are located in oxygenoctahedra, while the hydrogen ions may be coordinated to the oxygen ionsin some other configuration, for example when the hydrogen ions arelocated in trigonal prisms defined by the oxygen ions. A preferredhydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material comprisesH[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, which can be cation or anion deficient. In somepreferred embodiments, the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material mayalso include up to 25 atom percent of one or more other metal ionsreplacing manganese ions and/or lithium ions in the manganese-rich layerof the material. For example, the one or more other metal ions cancomprise a transition metal ion such as a Ti ion, a Zr ion, or both. Ina preferred embodiment, the one or more metal ions are contacted withthe hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material during the formationthereof, as described above.

The powdered metal oxide composition preferably has a disordered orpartially disordered structure, and can include stacking faults,dislocations, or a combination thereof. The stacking faults can existbetween cubic-closed-packed structures, hexagonal-close-packedstructures, trigonal prismatic stacking structures, or a combinationthereof.

In some embodiments, individual particles of the powdered metal oxidecomposition, a surface of the formed electrode, or both, are coated insitu during synthesis, for example, with a metal oxide, a metalfluoride, a metal polyanionic material, or a combination thereof, e.g.,at least one material selected from the group consisting of (a) lithiumfluoride, (b) aluminum fluoride, (c) a lithium-metal-oxide in which themetal is selected preferably, but not exclusively, from the groupconsisting of Al and Zr, (d) a lithium-metal-phosphate in which themetal is selected from the group consisting preferably, but notexclusively, of Fe, Mn, Co, and Ni, and (e) a lithium-metal-silicate inwhich the metal is selected from the group consisting preferably, butnot exclusively, of Al and Zr. In a preferred embodiment of theinvention, the constituents of the coating, such as the aluminum andfluoride ions of an AlF₃ coating, the lithium and phosphate ions of alithium phosphate coating, or the lithium, nickel and phosphate ions ofa lithium-nickel-phosphate coating can be incorporated in the solutionthat is contacted with the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material orthe lithium-manganese-oxide precursor when forming the electrodes ofthis invention. Alternatively, as taught hereinafter, the surface may becoated with fluoride ions, for example, using NH₄F, in which case, thefluoride ions may substitute for oxygen at the surface or at leastpartially within the bulk of the electrode structure.

Preferably, the formed positive electrode comprises at least about 50percent by weight (wt %) of the powdered metal oxide composition, and anelectrochemically inert polymeric binder (e.g. polyvinylidenedifluoride; PVDF). Optionally, the positive electrode can comprise up toabout 40 wt % carbon (e.g., carbon back, graphite, carbon nanotubes,carbon microspheres, carbon nanospheres, or any other form ofparticulate carbon).

In one preferred embodiment, the present invention, designated herein as“Embodiment A”, provides a positive electrode for an electrochemicalcell in which the electrode is formed by a method comprising: (a)contacting a hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material with one or moremetal ions to insert the one or more metal ions into thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material; (b) heat-treating theresulting product (e.g., at a temperature in the range of about 300 toabout 1000° C.) to form a powdered metal oxide composition; and (c)forming an electrode from the powdered metal oxide composition. Thepowdered metal oxide composition has a layered-type structure, aspinel-type structure, a rock salt-type structure, or an integratedstructure comprising one or more of these structure types. Preferably,the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material in this embodimentcomprises hydrogen, lithium, manganese, and oxygen ions, and the oxygenions are arranged in alternating layers of octahedra and trigonal prismsin the crystal structure of the material. Preferably, the one or moremetal ions are selected from the group consisting of an alkali metalion, an alkaline earth metal ion, and a transition metal ion (e.g., oneor more metal ions are selected from the group of ions consisting of Li,Na, K, Mg, Ca, Ti, V, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zr, Mo and Al ions). In somepreferred embodiments, the one or more other transition metal ionscomprises a Ti ion, a Zr ion, a Co ion, a Ni ion, or a combinationthereof.

If desired, the manganese and non-lithium metal ions in Embodiment A canbe partially disordered between lithium-rich layers and manganese-richlayers. The hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material can be layered,with the lithium and manganese ions located in oxygen octahedra and thehydrogen ions located in oxygen trigonal prisms in the layeredhydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material. The one or more metal ionsare in Embodiment A can be present in an aqueous solution whencontacting the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material therewith.

In the positive electrode of Embodiment A, a surface of the electrode,the individual particles of the powdered metal oxide composition, orboth, can comprise a coating that includes at least one materialselected from the group consisting of a metal oxide, a metal fluoride,and a metal polyanionic material. The coating can comprise, for example,at least one material selected from the group consisting of (a) lithiumfluoride, (b) aluminum fluoride, (c) a lithium-metal-oxide in which themetal is selected from the group consisting of Al and Zr, (d) alithium-metal-phosphate in which the metal is selected from the groupconsisting of Fe, Mn, Co, and Ni, and (e) a lithium-metal-silicatecomprising a metal selected from the group comprising Al and Zr.

The hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material in Embodiment A also caninclude up to 25 atom percent of one or more other transition metal ionsreplacing manganese ions, lithium ions, or a combination thereof in amanganese-rich layer of the material.

For example, the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material in step (a)of Embodiment A can be formed by contacting a lithium-manganese-oxideprecursor compound with a solution comprising an acid and the one ormore metal ions, and the one or more metal ions are inserted into thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material during the formation thereof;wherein the precursor compound comprises lithium, manganese, and oxygenions in a layered-type structure wherein lithium ions occupy octahedralsites in lithium-rich layers, and the lithium and manganese ions occupyoctahedral sites in manganese-rich layers that alternate with thelithium-rich layers. The electrode can contain cation or anion defectsand/or stacking faults and dislocations. Preferably, The precursorcompound comprises Li₂MnO₃ or Li[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, and optionallyincludes up to 25 atom percent of one or more other metal ions. Thesolution comprising the acid and the one or more metal ions also caninclude one or more metalloid-containing ions, non-metal containingions, or a combination thereof. The precursor compound can be preparedby the reaction of one or more lithium salts, one or more manganesesalts, and optionally one or more other metal salts at elevatedtemperature (e.g., in the range of about 450 to about 550° C.) in air.The salts can be selected from the group consisting of carbonates,hydroxides, nitrates, and isopropoxides.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method forfabricating a positive electrode as described herein. The methodcomprises contacting a hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material asdescribed herein with one or more metal ions to insert the one or moremetal ions into the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material;heat-treating the resulting metal insertion product to form the powderedmetal oxide composition; and then forming an electrode therefrom.

One preferred method for fabricating a positive electrode as describedherein comprises (a) contacting a hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxidematerial described herein with a solution comprising an acid and one ormore metal ions to insert the one or more metal ions into thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material, (b) heat-treating theresulting product to form the powdered metal oxide composition; and (c)then forming the electrode therefrom. In some preferred embodiments, thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material in step (a) is formed bycontacting a precursor compound with the solution comprising the acidand the one or more metal ions, and the one or more metal ions areinserted into the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material during theformation thereof; wherein the precursor compound comprises lithium,manganese, and oxygen ions in a layered-type structure wherein lithiumions occupy octahedral sites in lithium-rich layers, and the lithium andmanganese ions occupy octahedral sites in manganese-rich layers thatalternate with the lithium-rich layers. A preferred precursor compoundcomprises Li₂MnO₃. Optionally, the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxidematerial and precursor compound can be contacted with one or morestabilizing ions (e.g., lithium ions, magnesium ions, aluminum ions,titanium ions, manganese ions, iron ions, cobalt ions, nickel ions,silicon ions, fluoride ions, phosphate ions, and silicate ions) duringstep (a). The Li₂MnO₃ precursor can be prepared by the reaction of oneor more lithium salt and one or more manganese salt at elevatedtemperature (e.g., about 450° C. and about 550° C.) in air, and caninclude up to 25 atom percent of one or more other metal ion (e.g., Tiand or Zr), for example by inclusion of one or more salt of the othermetal ion with the lithium and manganese salts. In some preferredembodiments, the salts are reacted. The lithium, manganese, and othermetal salts can be, for example, carbonates, hydroxides, nitrates andisopropoxides.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides an electrochemicalcell comprising a positive electrode of the invention as describedherein, a negative electrode, and a suitable electrolyte, preferably alithium containing electrolyte, therebetween. The negative electrodepreferably comprises a metal selected from the group consisting oflithium, sodium, magnesium, zinc, and aluminum. The negative electrodetypically consists either of the pure metal, or an alloy, anintermetallic compound, or an intercalation compound such as those thatform with carbon, e.g., graphite or a hard carbon, which can operateeither on their own or in combination with one another. The electrolytecan be either a non-aqueous electrolyte or an aqueous electrolyte,depending on the metal used in the electrode structure or other factorsthat are well known in the art. A battery of the present inventioncomprises a plurality of the electrochemical cells arranged in parallel,in series, or both.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention consists of certain novel features and a combination ofparts hereinafter fully described, illustrated in the accompanyingdrawings, it being understood that various changes in the details may bemade without departing from the spirit, or sacrificing any of theadvantages of the present invention.

FIG. 1 depicts a schematic illustration of a typicallithium-manganese-oxide precursor structure from which a secondelectrode precursor of this invention is made.

FIG. 2 depicts a schematic illustration of a typicallithium-hydrogen-manganese-oxide precursor structure from which theelectrode materials of this invention can be made.

FIG. 3 depicts a schematic illustration of a typical lithium-metal-oxidestructure of this invention, without stacking faults and dislocations,for clarity.

FIG. 4 depicts the X-ray diffraction patterns of (a) a Li₂MnO₃ precursorproduct synthesized at 450° C.; (b) an acid-treated Li₂MnO₃ productderived from (a); (c) a Ni-containing Li₂MnO₃ product of this inventionprepared at 450° C. (“Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-450”; and (d) a Ni-containingLi₂MnO₃ product of this invention prepared at 850° C. (“Li₂MnO₃ _(—)Ni-850”).

FIG. 5 depicts (top) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ cell, and (bottom) corresponding dQ/dV plots of the cell.

FIG. 6 depicts (top) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-450 cell, and (bottom) corresponding dQ/dV plots ofthe cell, in which the cathode is comprised of a Ni-containing Li₂MnO₃product of this invention with a targeted composition0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂.

FIG. 7 depicts (top) electrochemical charge/discharge profiles between2.0 and 5.0 V of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-850 cell after 50 cycles between2.0 and 4.6 V, and (bottom) corresponding dQ/dV plots of the cell, inwhich the cathode is comprised of a Ni-containing Li₂MnO₃ product ofthis invention with a targeted composition0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂.

FIG. 8 depicts the rate capability a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-850 cell whendischarged between 4.6 and 2.0 V at various rates.

FIG. 9 depicts the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-2-850 cell, in which the cathode is comprised of aNi-containing Li₂MnO₃ product of this invention, with a targetedcomposition of 0.2Li₂MnO₃.0.8LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂.

FIG. 10 depicts the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) TiNi cell in which the cathode is comprised of a Ti- andNi-containing Li₂MnO₃ product of this invention, with a targetedcomposition of 0.5Li₂Mn_(0.9)Ti_(0.1)O₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂.

FIG. 11 depicts the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiCo cell in which the cathode is comprised of a Ni- andCo-containing Li₂MnO₃ product of this invention, with a targetedcomposition of 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.4)Ni_(0.4)Co_(0.2)O₂.

FIG. 12 depicts (top) electrochemical charge/discharge profiles between2.0 and 4.6 V of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Mn cell, and (bottom) correspondingdQ/dV plots of the cell, in which the cathode is comprised of aMn-containing Li₂MnO₃ product of this invention with a targetedcomposition of 0.8Li₂MnO₃.0.2LiMn₂O₄.

FIG. 13 depicts (top) the initial electrochemical charge/dischargeprofiles between 2.0 and 4.6 V of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Co—LiNiPO₄ cell, and(bottom) a capacity vs. cycle number plot of the same cell for 80cycles.

FIG. 14 depicts (top) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiF-450 cell in which the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiF-450cathode has a targeted fluorinated 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂composition, and (bottom) corresponding dQ/dV plots of the cell.

FIG. 15 depicts (top) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiF-850 cell in which the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiF-850cathode has a targeted fluorinated 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂composition, and (bottom) corresponding dQ/dV plots of the cell.

FIG. 16 depicts (top) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NaNi cell in which the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NaNi cathode wasderived by Ni incorporation into a Li_(1.95)Na_(0.05)MnO₃ precursor, and(bottom) corresponding dQ/dV plots of the cell.

FIG. 17 depicts (top) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) MgNi (5%) cell in which the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) MgNi (5%)cathode was derived by Ni incorporation into a Li_(1−x)Mg_(x/2)MnO₃(x=0.05) precursor, and (bottom) corresponding dQ/dV plots of the cell.

FIG. 18 depicts (top) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiC₀₋₂ cell in which the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiCo-2 cathode hada targeted lithium-rich compositionLi_(1.05)Mn_(0.52)Ni_(0.32)Co_(0.11)O₂ (in standard layered notation)and (bottom) corresponding dQ/dV plots of the cell.

FIG. 19 depicts (a) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiAl cell in which the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiAl cathode had atargeted lithium-rich composition Li_(1.16)Mn_(0.58)Ni_(0.19)Al_(0.06)O₂(in standard layered notation), and (b) corresponding dQ/dV plots of thecell.

FIG. 20 depicts (a) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/C—Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni cell in which the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni cathode had atargeted lithium-rich composition Li_(1.2)Mn_(0.6)Ni_(0.2)O₂ (instandard layered notation), cycled between 4.6 and 2.0 V for 45 cycles;(b) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles during further cyclingof the cell between 4.4 and 2.5 V; and (c) corresponding dQ/dV plots ofthe cell cycled between 4.4 and 2.5 V.

FIG. 21 depicts (a) the electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiLi cell in which the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiLi cathode had atargeted lithium-rich composition 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂with an additional 10% lithium (with respect to the precursor Li₂MnO₃)included in the composite electrode product, and (b) corresponding dQ/dVplots of the cell.

FIG. 22 depicts a schematic representation of an electrochemical cell.

FIG. 23 depicts a schematic representation of a battery consisting of aplurality of cells connected electrically in series and in parallel.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

As used herein, the term “lithium-metal-oxide” and grammaticalvariations thereof, refers to lithium metal oxide compounds, which canoptionally include lithium metal oxides in which some oxygen ions,predominantly but not exclusively at the surface, have been replaced byother anionic species, such as fluoride ions. The term“lithium-metal-polyanionic material” and grammatical variations thereof,refers to materials comprising at least one lithium cation, at least oneother metal cation (e.g., a Ni or Co cation), and at least onemetal-free polyvalent anion (e.g., phosphate, silicate, etc.). The term“hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide” refers to materials comprisinghydrogen ions, lithium ions, manganese ions and oxygen ions, andoptionally one or more other metal ion, arranged preferably in layers asdescribed herein.

Conventional lithium-ion battery cathodes, such as layered LiCoO₂,spinel LiMn₂O₄, olivine LiFePO₄ and compositional variations thereof, donot deliver sufficient electrochemical capacity and power to satisfy thedriving range requirements for plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles (PHEVs)and all-electric vehicles. Moreover, there is a growing demand toincrease the energy and power of lithium-ion batteries for otherwide-ranging applications, such as portable electronic devices, medicaldevices, aerospace and defense applications and for stand-alone energystorage. Conventional electrode materials such as LiCoO₂, LiMn₂O₄ andLiFePO₄ typically deliver capacities of 100-160 mAh/g between 4.2 and3.0 V at moderate to high rates. Layered LiMO₂ compounds, in which M isselected typically from electroactive metal cations, such as Mn, Co, Ni,and additional stabilizing cations such as Li and Al, provide the bestopportunity to increase the electrode capacity and hence the energy oflithium-ion cells and batteries, because they offer a maximum capacityof up to approximately 280 mAh/g at potentials greater than 3.0 V vs.metallic lithium. However, the highly oxidizing character andinstability of lithium-metal-oxide electrode structures, in particular,at low lithium loadings, as well as solubility effects, have limited theextent to which this high capacity can be realized, particularly at highrates.

The loss of oxygen from lithium-metal-oxide electrodes, such as layeredLiCoO₂ and LiNi_(1−y)Co_(y)O₂ electrodes can contribute to exothermicreactions with the electrolyte and with the lithiated carbon negativeelectrode, and subsequently to thermal runaway if the temperature of thecell reaches a critical value. Further improvements in the compositionand structural stability of the bulk and the surfaces oflithium-metal-oxide electrodes are therefore still required to protectthe intrinsic capacity of the electrode from decay and to improve theoverall performance and safety of lithium-ion cells without compromisingthe rate capability of the electrode.

Lithium-metal-oxides with spinel-type structure are particularlyattractive lithium-ion battery electrodes for high-power applications.Of particular significance is the lithium-manganese-oxide spinel,LiMn₂O₄, and its cation-substituted derivatives, LiMn_(2−x)M_(x)O₄, inwhich M is one or more metal ions typically a monovalent or amultivalent cation such as Li⁺, Mg²⁺ and Al³⁺, as reported by Gummow etal. in U.S. Pat. No. 5,316,877 and in Solid State Ionics, Volume 69,page 59 (1994). It is well known that LiMn₂O₄ and metal-substitutedLiMn_(2−x)M_(x)O₄ spinel electrodes are chemically unstable in alithium-ion cell environment, particularly at high potentials and/orwhen the cell operating temperature is raised above room temperature,when manganese ions from the spinel electrodes tend to dissolve in theelectrolyte. This process is believed to contribute to the capacity lossof the cells at elevated temperatures. Moreover, the removal of all thelithium from LiMn_(2−x)M_(x)O₄ spinel electrodes, notably LiMn₂O₄ (x=0),yields a Mn_(2−x)M_(x)O₄ (MnO₂, x=0) component, which itself is a strongoxidizing agent. The surface of such delithiated spinel electrodes canhave a high oxygen activity, thereby possibly inducing unwantedoxidation reactions with the electrolyte. Although considerable progresshas been made to suppress the solubility and high-temperatureperformance of spinel electrodes and to improve their stability bycation doping, as described for example by Gummow et al. in U.S. Pat.No. 5,316,877, or by forming oxyfluoride compounds as described byAmatucci et al. in the Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Volume149, page K31 (2002) and by Choi et al. in Electrochemical andSolid-State Letters, Volume 9, page A245-A248 (2006), or by surfacecoatings as described by Kim et al. in the Journal of theElectrochemical Society, Volume 151, page A1755 (2004), these treatmentshave not yet entirely overcome the cycling instability of cellscontaining manganese-based spinel electrodes.

Considerable progress has been made over recent years to stabilizecubic-close-packed layered lithium-metal-oxide electrode systems byusing lithium- and manganese-rich composite electrode structures,xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMO₂ in which M is, for example, Mn, Ni, and/or Co, asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,677,082 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,680,143, and byKim et al. in Chemistry of Materials, Volume 16, page 1996 (2004), andby Thackeray et al. in the Journal of Materials Chemistry, Volume 17,page 3112 (2007). These electrodes can deliver essentially all theirtheoretical capacity (240-250 mAh/g) at relatively low rate, for exampleC/24, as reported by Johnson et al. in Electrochemistry Communications,Volume 6, page 1085 (2004). Composite electrode structures containingcubic-close-packed layered- and spinel components, such asxLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMn_(2−x)M_(x)O₄ in which M is a metal cation selectedpreferably from Li, Ni, Co, Al and Mg have also been disclosed, asdescribed for example, by Johnson et al. in ElectrochemistryCommunications, Volume 7, page 528 (2005), and by Thackeray et al. inthe Journal of Materials Chemistry, Volume 15, page 2257 (2005). Thesecomposite electrodes form because of the structural compatibility of thecubic-close-packed oxygen arrays of the individual lithium-metal-oxidecomponents. The integrated structures are highly complex and are oftencharacterized by complicated cation arrangements with short range order.

When the manganese and nickel ions are nearest neighbors in layered andspinel electrode structures and in the composite electrode structuresdescribed above, they tend to adopt tetravalent and divalent oxidationstates, respectively. The lithium and transition metal ions aredistributed in highly complex arrangements; the Li⁺ and Mn⁴⁺ ions arearranged in small localized regions to give the structure Li₂MnO₃-likecharacter. Composite layered materials can be represented either intwo-component notation, xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMO₂, in which the close-packedLi₂MnO₃ and LiMO₂ components, are structurally integrated or,alternatively, when normalized in standard layered (rock salt) notation,as Li_((2+2x)/(2+x))Mn_(2x/(2+x))M_((2−2x)/(2+x))O₂. Composite layeredxLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMO₂ structures are commonly referred to as‘layered-layered’ materials, which reflects the layered character of theLi₂MnO₃ and LiMO₂ components. The Li₂MnO₃ component that suppliessurplus lithium to the layered structure plays a critical role instabilizing the electrode structure at low lithium loadings; on lithiumextraction, lithium ions in the transition metal layers diffuse into thelithium depleted layers to provide sufficient binding energy to maintainthe integrity of the close-packed oxygen array.

Electrochemical extraction of lithium from xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMO₂ duringthe initial charge occurs in two steps. When taken to completion above4.6 V vs. Li⁺, the ideal reactions can be represented:

LiMO₂→MO₂+Li⁺ +e ⁻  (1)

Li₂MnO₃→MnO₂+2Li⁺+½O₂+2e ⁻  (2)

Despite the removal of lithium and oxygen from the Li₂MnO₃ component,the layered character of the residual MnO₂ component remains remarkablyintact. The highly oxidizing nature of both the MO₂ and MnO₂ components,however, can result in oxygen loss at the particle surface, particularlywhen M=Co and/or Ni, thereby damaging the electrode surface. Electrolyteoxidation can also occur at these high potentials. These factors limitthe rate at which lithium can be reinserted into the charged,high-capacity xMnO₂.(1−x)MO₂ electrode. These electrodes also tend tolose capacity on cycling; the same holds true for ‘layered-spinel’composite electrodes xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMn_(2−x)M_(x)O₄. ‘Layered-layered’xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMO₂ electrodes, in particular, are also known to sufferfrom a voltage decay phenomenon on cycling that compromises the energyand energy efficiency of a lithium-ion cell.

Ion exchange reactions from Na-containing precursors to produce Li-ionbattery electrode materials using non-aqueous solvents are well known.For example, in a recent development, Johnson et al. have reported inElectrochemistry Communications, Vol. 12, page 1618 (2010) that alithium-rich nickel-manganese oxide compoundLi_(x)(Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75))O_(y) (x>1) can be synthesized by Li-ionexchange in hexanol from a layeredNa_(0.9)Li_(0.3)Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)O_(δ) precursor following previouslydescribed techniques as referenced therein. During this reaction, itappears that the layered structure converts from one in which the Na⁺ions in the Na-rich layer are in trigonal prismatic coordination to onein which the ion-exchanged Li ions are in octahedral coordination andthat this transformation appears to generate stacking faults in theoxygen sublattice that contribute to the good cycling stability of theelectrode and its ability to discharge at high rates. The X-raydiffraction pattern of the ion-exchanged productLi_(1.32)Na_(0.02)Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)O_(y) shows a strong peak atapproximately 18° 2θ characteristic of both layered- and spinel lithiummetal oxide structures, as well as broad peaks, indicative ofimperfections in the structure, and a collection of weak peaks in therange 20-23° 2θ region, indicative of Li ordering in the transitionmetal layer, which is characteristic of the basic unit of a Li₂MnO₃structure. Li/Li_(1.32)Na_(0.02)Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)O_(y) cells provide astable reversible capacity of 220 mAh/g at a current rate of 15 mA/g and150 mAh/g at an extremely high rate of 1500 mA/g (i.e., a 15 C rate).The voltage profile generated by theLi_(1.32)Na_(0.02)Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)O_(y) electrode contains featurescharacteristic of layered and spinel components in the electrodestructure.

This invention relates to positive electrode materials for lithium cellsand batteries. It relates, in particular, to electrode precursormaterials comprising manganese ions and to methods for fabricatinglithium-metal-oxide electrode materials and structures using theprecursor materials. More specifically, the invention relates tolithium-metal-oxide electrode materials with layered-type structures,spinel-type structures, rock salt-type structures, or integratedstructures or combinations of structures or modifications thereof,notably those with imperfections, such as cation or anion defects and/orstacking faults and dislocations. The invention extends to includelithium-metal-oxide electrode materials with surface protection, forexample, with metal-oxide, metal-fluoride and/or metal-phosphate layersor coatings to protect the electrodes from highly oxidizing potentialsin the cells and from other undesirable effects, such as electrolyteoxidation, oxygen loss and/or dissolution. Such surface protectionenhances the surface stability, rate capability and cycling stability ofthe electrode materials of the invention.

In one embodiment, the lithium-metal-oxide materials of the inventionare prepared, for example, by treating a precursor comprising Li₂MnO₃,which has a layered-type structure and which has an essentiallycubic-close-packed oxygen array, with an acid solution. The Li₂MnO₃precursor, or a precursor containing a Li₂MnO₃ component, is synthesizedtypically in the range of about 300 to 1000° C. (preferably about 400 toabout 900° C.). The acid-treatment of the Li₂MnO₃ precursor can producea layered lithium-hydrogen-manganese oxide product, such asH[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂ (i.e., in normalized layered LiMO₂ notation inwhich the oxygen ions are arranged in alternating layers of octahedraand trigonal prisms) and in which the lithium ions are retained, orpartially retained, in the transition metal layers. Thelithium-manganese-oxide precursor, such as Li₂MnO₃, orlithium-hydrogen-manganese oxide precursor produced therefrom, such asH[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, may be stoichiometric, or non-stoichiometric withanion and/or cation defects. In a second embodiment, the manganese ionsin the Li₂MnO₃ precursor and the resulting acid-treated product,H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, may be partially substituted by one or moremultivalent ions, such as alkaline earth metal ions and/or transitionmetal ions and/or other non-transition metal ions. TheH[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂ product, or other compositions formed by thereaction, can react further in a second step with lithium and othermetal ions to produce the lithium metal oxide electrodes of theinvention after partial or complete removal of the hydrogen ions byion-exchange and heat-treatment. Alternatively, the acid-treatment ofthe Li₂MnO₃ precursor can occur simultaneously in the presence oflithium ions and other metal ions to produce the substituted lithiummetal oxide electrodes in one step, which is considered a notableadvantage from processing and cost standpoints. This acid treatmentprocess is followed by the heat-treatment step, typically between 300and 1000° C. in air, to anneal the electrode material and to partiallyor completely remove the hydrogen ions from the material.

Typical lithium-metal-oxide products of this invention have layered-typestructures, spinel-type structures, rock salt-type structures orcombinations of these structure types, such as composite (i.e.,structurally-integrated) ‘layered-layered’ structures, composite‘layered-spinel’ structures, ‘layered-rock salt’ structures, and othercomplex structurally-integrated types. The invention extendsspecifically to include electrodes that comprise, at least as onecomponent of the electrode, a composite Li₂MnO₃-MO rock salt structurein which M is a metal cation, selected preferably from the first rowtransition metal elements, such as Ti, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni. In aparticular embodiment, the composite Li₂MnO₃-MO rock salt structure maybe integrated with other metal oxide components such as a layered LiMO₂component or a spinel LiM₂O₄ component, or both. In a furtherembodiment, the MO component in the electrode structure can be partiallysubstituted by lithium, yielding rock salt components or regions ofcomposition Li_(x)M′_(1−x)O (0<x<0.5, and M′ is one or more metal ionother than Li) that may be either stoichiometric or lithium deficientsuch that the formula of the defect rock salt component isLi_(x−y)M′_(1−x)O in which y≦x. In a particular embodiment, thestructures may be disordered and/or may preferably contain stackingfaults and dislocations, such as those that exist, for example, betweencubic-closed-packed (ccp) structures (i.e., with ABCABC . . . stacking),hexagonal-close-packed (hcp) structures (i.e., with ABABAB . . .stacking) and those with trigonal prismatic stacking, such as found inthe H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂ precursor of this invention that has acombination of ccp and trigonal prismatic stacking of the oxygen layers(i.e., AABBCC . . . stacking). In practice, there are more complex typesof packing sequences because the stacking of oxygen layers inlithium-metal-oxide materials tends to be imperfect. All stackingdeviations from ideal close packing and trigonal prismatic stacking, andirregular stacking sequences are therefore included in this invention.

In a further embodiment, the electrode materials of the invention may besurface protected by layers or coatings, the layers or coatingscomprising, for example, metal oxides, metal fluorides, metalphosphates, and/or metal silicates particularly, but not exclusively,lithium-metal oxides, lithium-metal fluorides, lithium-metal phosphatesand lithium metal silicates to protect the electrode material surfacesfrom undesirable reactions at high potentials, notably above 4 V. In apreferred embodiment of the invention, the constituents of the coating,such as the aluminum and fluoride ions of an AlF₃ coating, the lithiumand phosphate ions of a lithium phosphate coating, or the lithium,nickel and phosphate ions of a lithium-nickel-phosphate coating can beincorporated in the solution that is contacted with thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide or lithium-manganese-oxide precursorswhen forming the electrodes of this invention. For example, theinventors have demonstrated by X-ray absorption spectroscopy that whenelectrode particles of composition 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiCoO₂ are subjected tosurface treatment in an acidic solution containing Li⁺, Ni²⁺ and PO₄ ³⁻ions, it appears that the phosphate ions have a tendency to leachlithium ions from the surface of the 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiCoO₂ particles andthat the nickel ions migrate into the lithium sites of the transitionmetal layers, characteristic of the Li₂MnO₃-type component in the0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiCoO₂ structure. Lithium extraction from sites at, ornear, the surface of the 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiCoO₂ structure is likelycompensated by the Ni²⁺ ions and the formation of vacancies. Thisunexpected finding has immediate implications for synthesizing a rangeof bulk electrode materials and structures, while simultaneouslysynthesizing and controlling the surface composition and structure ofthe final product by contacting, for example, the precursor materialscomprising Li₂MnO₃ or substituted compounds in an acidic medium or thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide materials in accordance with thisinvention, with one or more metal salts, preferably in solution, forexample, salts containing alkali metal cations such as lithium cations,alkaline earth metals such as magnesium cations, transition metalcations such as those of titanium, vanadium, manganese, iron, cobalt,nickel and molybdenum, other metal or metalloid cations such as those ofaluminum, silicon, gallium and the like, and/or stabilizing anions suchas fluoride ions, phosphate ions, silicate ions or the like. Thestabilizing anions, such as fluoride ions or phosphate ions, arepreferably contained in solution alternatively, as a non-metal salt,such as NH₄F or the like, or ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, NH₄H₂PO₄, orthe like, as taught in the Examples, hereafter. ‘Layered-layered’xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMO₂ electrodes, in particular, are also known to sufferfrom a voltage decay phenomenon on cycling that compromises the energyand energy efficiency of a lithium-ion cell.

It is clear from the principles of the invention described above, thatnumerous materials and compositions can be derived from these reactionswith layered Li₂MnO₃-type precursors, as depicted schematically in FIG.1, and particularly with H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂-type precursors, asdepicted schematically in FIG. 2, in which the trigonal prismaticarrangement of the oxygen ions is conducive to the introduction ofstacking faults, dislocations and other structural imperfections duringits reaction with lithium and other desirable cationic species togenerate close-packed lithium-metal-oxide electrode structures, asdepicted schematically (without the stacking faults and imperfections,for convenience) in FIG. 3. It is believed that these structuralimperfections contribute to enhanced electrochemical performance such ascycling stability, improved capacity and power, and to providingresistance to phase transformations during cycling, such as thetransformation of delithiated layered components in the structure tospinel. The lithium- and manganese-based metal oxide materials producedby these reactions are particularly useful as positive electrodes inlithium batteries, notably lithium-ion batteries that operate typicallybetween about 4.6 V and 2.0 V. The synthesis reaction conditions andcomposition of the targeted lithium metal oxide material can be modifiedto produce a wide range of electrode compositions and structures,notably those based on layered- and spinel-type structures andstructurally-integrated products.

Specific advantages of this invention include, for example thefollowing:

(1) A significant advantage of using a H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂-typeprecursor that contains oxygen ions in a trigonal prismatic arrangementis that H is lost during the fabrication of the finallithium-metal-oxide product, which provides greater flexibility incontrolling the structure and the electrochemical properties of theproduct by tailoring, for example, the degree of imperfections, stackingfaults and disorder, whereas the Li-ion exchanged products from Na-basedprecursors always contain some Na ions which remain associated with theproduct during and after fabrication of the electrode.

(2) By using aqueous solutions, the approach provides the advantage ofavoiding the non-aqueous Li-ion exchange step required for Na-basedprecursors, which although possible, is believed to be costly.

(3) The reaction method holds the possibility of making an extremelywide variety of compounds and compositions, e.g., spinel and layeredcompounds, composite ‘layered-layered’-type, composite‘layered-spinel’-type and, unexpectedly, composite ‘layered-rocksalt’-type structures, as well as other more complex structure types,particularly those with structural imperfections, such as stackingfaults and dislocations and those with various degrees of order anddisorder.

(4) A particularly significant advantage of the electrode materialsdescribed herein is that, unlike the prior art that generally teaches aone-step mixing of the lithium and metal cations during the synthesis oflithium-metal-oxide electrodes for lithium battery applications, thisinvention teaches the advantage of tailoring the amount of stabilizingcations in the lithium-rich layers of the product by an ion-exchangeprocess with a Li₂MnO₃ precursor, which acts as a template to controlthe extent to which the Li₂MnO₃-based lithium-metal-oxide electrodes ofthis invention are structurally integrated with and composed of layered,spinel, and rocksalt components (and more complex disordered derivativesthereof), thereby leading to enhanced structural and electrochemicalstability over typical state-of-the-art lithium-metal-oxide electrodematerials.

(5) The electrodes can be used in other cell/battery types, such asthose containing aqueous electrolytes, e.g., those with lithium anodesin conjunction with a solid electrolyte membrane, as well as othernon-aqueous systems, e.g., those with sodium or magnesium anodes,depending on the cations and anions that can be introduced into aLi₂MnO₃ precursor, or a hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide precursorderived therefrom, as described herein.

In a further embodiment, the invention includes lithium-metal-oxideelectrode materials, the surface of the individual particles beingprotected, for example, with metal-oxide, metal-fluoride and/ormetal-polyanionic layers or coatings to protect the electrodes fromhighly oxidizing potentials in the cells and from other undesirableeffects, such as electrolyte oxidation, oxygen loss and/or dissolution.Such surface protection enhances the surface stability, rate capabilityand cycling stability of the electrodes of this invention. In oneembodiment, the lithium-metal-oxide particles of the electrode areprotected by, and comprised of, one or more metal fluorides, metaloxides or metal-polyanionic materials, such as lithium fluoride, alithium-metal-oxide, a lithium-metal-phosphate, a lithium-metal-silicateor the like, in which the polyanion is comprised of a negatively chargedspecies that contains more than one atom type, for example WO₃ ⁻, MoO³⁻,SO₄ ²⁻, PO₄ ³⁻, SiO₄ ⁴⁻. In a preferred embodiment, the metal fluorides,metal oxides or metal-polyanionic materials can act as lithium-ionconductors at or above the operating potential of thelithium-metal-oxide positive electrode to provide access of the lithiumions from the electrolyte to the electrode during discharge, andvice-versa during charge, while simultaneously protecting the surface ofthe electrode from undesirable effects, such as electrolyte oxidation,oxygen loss or dissolution. Such surface protection significantlyenhances the surface stability, rate capability and cycling stability ofthe lithium-metal-oxide electrodes, particularly when charged to highpotentials.

In a further embodiment of this invention, the electrodes can beprotected by a modified surface, surface layer or coating comprisingmetal fluorides, metal oxides or metal-polyanionic materials that arestable at and/or above the operating electrochemical potential of thelithium-metal-oxide electrode. The terms ‘modified surface’, ‘surfacelayer’ and ‘coating’ include all forms of surface modifications thatserve to stabilize the electrode surface, for example, depositedparticles, deposited films, anion and cation substitutions,compositional gradients at the surface, and the like. It is desirablethat the modified surface, surface layer or coating should actpredominantly or exclusively as a stable lithium-ion conductor thatoperates preferably at or above 4 V, more preferably at or above 4.5 Vand most preferably at or above 5.0 V versus metallic lithium, therebyallowing the electrode to operate repeatedly at high rates withoutsubjecting the modified surface, surface layer or coating to potentiallydamaging redox reactions that might affect the electrochemicalproperties of the electrode.

The metal fluorides, metal oxides or metal-polyanionic materials may becomprised of one or more metals, and it may be amorphous or,alternatively, it may be poorly crystalline or strongly crystalline witheither stoichiometric structures or cation and/or anion defectstructures. The metal fluorides are comprised preferably of one or moreof lithium fluoride, aluminum fluorides and compounds thereof, whereas,the metal oxides are comprised preferably of lithium oxide, aluminumoxide, zirconium oxide and compounds thereof, such as the family oflithium aluminum oxide compounds and lithium zirconium oxide compounds.The metal-polyanionic material is comprised preferably of one or morelithium-metal-phosphate or lithium-metal-silicate materials, forexample, those selected from the family of lithium-nickel-phosphate-,lithium-cobalt-phosphate-, lithium-nickel-silicate-, andlithium-cobalt-silicate materials.

In a further preferred embodiment, the lithium-metal-polyanionicmaterial is comprised of lithium-nickel-phosphate,lithium-cobalt-phosphate, lithium-nickel-silicate, and/orlithium-cobalt-silicate compositions and structures, includingstoichiometric or defect olivine-related LiMPO₄ structures (for example,M=Ni, Co), Li₃PO₄-related structures as well as metal-substitutedLi₃PO₄-related structures, such as defect Li_(3−x)M_(x/2)PO₄ (forexample, M=Ni, Co; 0<x<2) structures, and Li₂MSiO₄-related structuressuch as stoichiometric Li₂NiSiO₄ and Li₂CoSiO₄ and defect Li_(2−x)MSiO₄structures. In the stoichiometric and defect compounds of thisinvention, such as LiMPO₄, Li_(3−x)M_(x/2)PO₄, Li₂MSiO₄ andLi_(2−x)MSiO₄ compositions and structures, the M cations may bepartially or completely substituted by other metal cations, for example,divalent cations, such as Mg²⁺ or Zn²⁺ ions, and trivalent cations, suchas Al³⁺ ions, and tetravalent cations, such as Zr⁴⁺ ions, that can alsoform lithium-ion conducting, solid electrolyte compounds. Of particularsignificance is the advantage that lithium-metal-polyanionic materialscontaining divalent metal cations, such as LiNiPO₄ and LiCoPO₄,surprisingly can remain stable and electrochemically inactive to lithiumextraction to a high electrochemical potential of approximately 5 V vs.lithium metal. The applicants believe that a particular advantage ofhaving stable divalent nickel ions in the modified surface, surfacelayer or coating may aid to stabilize manganese-basedlithium-metal-oxide electrodes because any Ni²⁺/Mn⁴⁺ nearest neighborinteractions would contribute further to stabilizing thelithium-metal-oxide electrode surface by suppressing surface Mn³⁺species and manganese solubility.

The lithium-metal-polyanionic material of this invention may alsoinclude Li₃PO₄ as a component of the protective layer. In this respect,Li₃PO₄ may either be the major component (>50%) or the minor component(<50%) of the surface structure or, alternatively, it may be usedentirely as the protective surface layer or coating of thelithium-metal-oxide electrode.

In a further embodiment, the invention extends to includeLi₄SiO₄-related compositions and structures and substituted compositionsand structures, for example, metal-substituted, defectLi_(4−x)M_(x/2)SiO₄ structures in which M is one or more divalentcations such as Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺ and 0<x<2. Inmetal-substituted Li₄SiO₄ structures, the substituted M cations mayalternatively be comprised partially of trivalent cations, such as Al³⁺ions, or tetravalent cations, such as Zr⁴⁺ ions, that can formlithium-ion conducting compounds.

The invention extends to electrode precursor materials comprisingmanganese ions and to methods for fabricating lithium-metal-oxideelectrode materials and structures using these precursor materials. In aparticularly preferred embodiment, the method involves, as a first step,the acid treatment of a material comprising Li₂MnO₃, for example,stoichiometric, cation deficient, or anion deficient Li₂MnO₃, compositestructures and materials such as ‘layered-layered’ xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMO₂,‘layered-spinel’ xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiM₂O₄, and xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)MO, orcombinations thereof, for example, a material or structure consisting of‘layered-layered’ xLi₂MnO₃.(1−x)LiMO₂ and MO components, in which M isone or more suitable metal cations as known in the art, and in which0<x<1. The Li₂MnO₃ precursors and those that contain up to 25% ofalternative metal ions, such as Ti or Zr, as described herein, aretypically prepared by well known reaction procedures, for example, bythe reaction of various lithium-, manganese- and other metal salts, suchas carbonates, hydroxides, nitrates, and isopropoxides in air attemperatures typically above about 450° C., and preferably below about550° C., as described in the examples of this invention. To thoseskilled in the art, it will be obvious that other well known precursorsalts, such as lithium-, manganese- and other metal oxyhydroxides,acetates and the like, can also be used for this purpose. The acidtreatment process leaches lithium from the Li₂MnO₃-comprising materials,which may induce a change in the arrangement of the oxygen ion layersthat sandwich the lithium layers from an octahedral arrangement ofoxygen ions to a trigonal prismatic arrangement of oxygen ions. In asecond step, the H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂ product, or other compositionsformed by the reaction, can react further with lithium and other metalions to produce the lithium metal oxide electrodes of the inventionafter partial or complete removal of the hydrogen ions by ion-exchangeand heat-treatment. Alternatively, the acid-treatment of the Li₂MnO₃precursor can occur simultaneously in the presence of lithium ions andother metal ions to produce the substituted lithium metal oxideelectrodes in one step; this acid treatment process is followed by theheat-treatment step, typically in the range of about 300 to 1000° C.(preferably about 400 to about 950° C.) and typically in air at ambientpressure to partially or completely remove the hydrogen ions from theelectrode material. Other oxidizing, reducing or inert atmospheres andpressure conditions can alternatively be used to control the compositionand electrochemical properties of the final product, if required.

In an additional embodiment, it has been discovered from the examplesprovided in this invention that electrodes with targeted composition0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂ can deliver high capacities and cancycle with remarkable stability (e.g., as in Example 15 and FIG. 20).X-ray absorption data shows that the stability of the electrode canlikely be attributed to Mn—Ni nearest neighbor interactions, and thatregions of high manganese concentration are likely responsible forchanges to the Mn coordination environment on cycling and a consequentloss of cycling stability, consistent with the generation of‘spinel-like’ regions within the structure. This invention thereforeextends to a closely-related method for fabricating the stabilized‘layered-layered’, ‘layered-spinel’, ‘layered-layered-spinel’,‘layered-rocksalt’, ‘layered-layered-rocksalt’,‘layered-layered-spinel-rocksalt’ structural configurations and morecomplex configurations of this invention, whereby a lithium-metal(M)-oxide compound, in which M comprises a metal cation such as Mn, Ni,Co, for example LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂ andLiMn_(0.33)Ni_(0.33)O_(0.3)O_(0.33)O₂ in which the Mn ions aresurrounded predominantly by non-Mn ions (e.g., Ni and/or Co), i.e.,preferably by more than 50%, is used as a solid precursor that can bereacted, for example, with lithium and manganese ions in solution,optionally in the presence of other metal ions or surface stabilizingcations and/or anions as described hereinbefore, typically in a Li:Mnratio of 2:1 in accordance with the formula of a stabilizing componentLi₂MnO₃, at room temperature and subsequently heated and annealed athigher temperature to dry the product and form a composite electrodestructure, respectively, as previously described.

More specifically, therefore, this invention extends to include a methodfor fabricating a positive electrode comprising: (a) contacting alithium-metal-oxide material wherein the metal comprises manganese andnickel with lithium ions and optionally one or more metal ions, such asmanganese ions, to insert the lithium ions and one or more metal ionsinto the lithium-metal-oxide material; (b) heat-treating the resultingproduct to form a powdered metal oxide composition; and (c) forming anelectrode from the powdered metal oxide composition. In a particularembodiment, the lithium-metal-oxide material in step (a) is formed bycontacting a lithium-metal-oxide precursor compound with a solutioncomprising an acid with lithium ions and optionally one or more metalions, the lithium ions and one or more metal ions being inserted intothe lithium-metal-oxide material during the formation thereof; whereinthe precursor compound comprises lithium, manganese, one or more othermetal ions and oxygen ions in a layered-type structure. In a preferredembodiment, the metal of the lithium-metal-oxide material comprisesmanganese, nickel and cobalt ions, such as LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂ orLiMn_(0.33)Ni_(0.33)Co_(0.33)O₂, in which the manganese ions havetransition metal nearest neighbors or, preferably, lithium andtransition metal neighbors such as in the flower pattern of an idealizedLiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂ structure, as described by van der Ven et al. inElectrochemistry Communications 6, Volume 6, pages 1045-1050 (2004), andThackeray et al. in the Journal of Materials Chemistry, Volume 17, pages3112-3125 (2007). The surface of the electrode, the individual particlesof the powdered metal oxide composition thus formed, or both, maycomprise a coating that includes at least one material selected from thegroup consisting of a metal oxide, a metal fluoride, and a metalpolyanionic material to provide additional stability to the electrodewhen operated in an electrochemical cell.

From the principles of the invention described above, it will be clearto those skilled in the art that numerous materials, compositions andstructure types can be derived from Li₂MnO₃-type precursors,H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂-type precursors, or lithium metal oxide precursorsby varying the reaction conditions. The lithium-metal-oxide materialsproduced by these reactions are particularly useful as positiveelectrodes for lithium-ion batteries. The principles of this inventionextends to include other electrochemical cells and battery types, suchas those containing aqueous electrolytes, for example those with lithiumanodes in conjunction with a solid electrolyte membrane, as well asother non-aqueous systems, for example those with sodium or magnesiumanodes. The electrochemical cells and batteries of this invention can beprimary cells and batteries, or secondary (rechargeable) cells andbatteries.

The following examples describe the principles of the invention ascontemplated by the inventors, but they are not to be construed aslimiting examples.

Example 1 Formation of a Powdered Metal Oxide Material for a PositiveElectrode of the Invention Describing Selected Principles of theInvention

Step 1

Li₂MnO₃ can be synthesized typically at about 400-500° C. and contactedwith approximately 2 M sulfuric acid or nitric acid at room temperatureto form a precursor of nominal composition H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, whichis then filtered and dried. For example, FIG. 4 a shows the X-raydiffraction pattern of a typical Li₂MnO₃ precursor synthesized at 450°C. and FIG. 4 b when acid treated with 2 M HNO₃. The broad peak centeredat approximately 15 degrees 2θ (2-theta) is from petroleum jelly on thesample holder and the sharp peak at approximately 51 degrees 2θ is fromthe sample holder. The acid-treated sample shows relatively strong peaksat approximately 19, 38 and 49 degrees 2θ, as well as revealing asubstantial reduction of the peak at approximately 45 degrees 2θ. Theseresults are consistent with a P3-type layered structure with H ionswithin trigonal prismatic sites of one layer, and the remaining Mn andLi ions in octahedral sites of adjacent layers.

Step 2

The H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂ can be subsequently reacted with salts of Li,Ni, Mn, such as lithium hydroxides, nitrates, sulfates or carbonates,nickel hydroxides, nitrates, sulfates or carbonates, or manganesehydroxides, nitrates, sulfates or carbonates either in solution or inthe solid state and subsequently heated, typically at 400 to 950° C., toform a powdered metal oxide composition used to prepare a positiveelectrode of the invention. One specific example of such a reaction issummarized in Reaction A, below:

6H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂+5Li₂CO₃+2NiCO₃+2MnCO₃+O₂→4(Li₂MnO₃.LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂)+9CO₂+3H₂O  (ReactionA)

In this reaction, the conversion from trigonal prismatic configurationof the oxygen ions in the layered H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂ precursor tooctahedral configuration in the Li₂MnO₃.LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂ product cangive rise to stacking faults to stabilize the composite structure tolithium insertion and extraction reactions without significantlyimpacting rate capability.

Other lithium metal oxide compositions can be synthesized by selectivelyvarying the relative amounts of the H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂ precursor aswell as the lithium and the metal salts in Step 2.

Example 2 Formation of a Powdered Metal Oxide Material for a PositiveElectrode of the Invention Describing Selected Principles of theInvention

In this example, the Li₂MnO₃ precursor material, as described in Example1 above, is treated typically with acid at the same time that it isreacted with the lithium, nickel and manganese nitrates in acidsolution, after which it is heated to dryness and annealed at highertemperature, e.g., about 400-600° C. such that essentially all thelithium in the original precursor remains in the final4(Li₂MnO₃.LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂) product. In this case, the idealreaction can be represented as in Reaction B:

2Li₂MnO₃+2Li(NO₃)₂+Ni(NiO₃)₂+Mn(NO₃)₂+acid→2(Li₂MnO₃.LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂)+6NO₂+O₂  (ReactionB)

Other lithium metal oxide compositions can be synthesized by selectivelyvarying the relative amounts of the H[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂ precursor aswell as the lithium and the metal salts in the reaction above. Moreover,numerous metal salts can be used to prepare compounds over an extremelywide compositional range. Note that, in Reaction B, oxygen is generatedby the reaction to form the Li₂MnO₃.LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂ product of theinvention whereas in Reaction A oxygen is consumed to form the product.Reaction B is preferred to Reaction A because the product is synthesizedin a one-step reaction directly from a Li₂MnO₃ precursor, rather than atwo-step reaction with the formation of a discretehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide intermediate in Reaction A.

Example 3 Electrochemical Evaluation of a Powdered Metal Oxide Materialfor a Positive Electrode of the Invention

For the electrochemical evaluation of the lithium metal oxide materialsproduced by the methods described herein, coin-type cells (2032, Hohsen)are typically used. The cells are constructed in an argon-filled glovebox (<5 ppm O₂ and H₂O). The cathode consists typically of 80 wt % ofthe lithium metal oxide powder, 10 wt % carbon, and 10 wt %polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) binder on aluminum foil. The anode canbe e.g. either metallic lithium or graphite (MAG-10, Hitachi with 8 wt %PVDF) on copper foil. The electrolyte is typically 1.2M LiPF₆ in a 3:7mixture of ethylene carbonate and ethylmethyl carbonate. For the cyclingexperiments, cells are galvanostatically charged and dischargedtypically between 2.0 and 4.6 V (2.0 and 4.5 V for the Li-ion cells) atdifferent currents (0.1-2.0 mA/cm²) and trickle charged at 4.6 V for 3hours. For typical rate tests, lithium cells are charged to 4.6 V at 0.1mA/cm² with a trickle charge at 4.6 V for 3 hours; cells are dischargedto 2.0 V at 0.1 to 1.0 mA/cm² with three cycles at each rate.Alternatively, electrochemical cells can be subjected to one dischargeat various rates to assess the rate capability of the cathode material.Electrochemical experiments are conducted typically at room temperatureand at elevated temperature (about 50° C.) and duplicated to checkreproducibility.

Example 4

Li₂MnO₃ was prepared by the following general procedure: MnCO₃ was addedto an aqueous solution of LiOH.H₂O in the required stoichiometric amountand stirred for about 45 minutes to 1 hour. The liquid from the solutionwas evaporated at approximately 80° C., and a solid product wascollected and ground to a powder. The powder was then annealed at about450° C. for about 30 hours in air. The X-ray diffraction pattern of theannealed Li₂MnO₃ product is shown in FIG. 4, trace (a). The X-raydiffraction pattern of the acid-treated Li₂MnO₃ product is shown in FIG.4, trace (b).

A Li₂MnO₃ product containing nickel with a targeted composition0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂ was prepared as follows: the Li₂MnO₃precursor produced by the method described above was reacted with thestoichiometrically required amount of nickel nitrate in a 0.1M solutionof HNO₃ and stirred overnight at room temperature, i.e., the Li:Mn:Niratio in the Li₂MnO₃/nitric acid solution was about 1.50:0.75:0.25. Theliquid from the solution was evaporated at approximately 70° C., and theresulting solid product was collected and ground to a powder. The powderwas then annealed at about 450° C. for about 6 hours in air. The X-raydiffraction pattern of the annealed nickel-containing Li₂MnO₃ product,labeled “Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-450” is shown in FIG. 4, trace (c), and whenannealed at about 850° C. for about 6 hours in air in FIG. 4, trace (d),labeled “Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-850”.

In the X-ray diffraction patterns depicted in FIG. 4, the broad peakcentered at approximately 15 degrees 2θ is from petroleum jelly on thesample holder. The sharp peaks centered at approximately 33 and 51degrees 2θ are from the sample holder. The X-ray diffraction pattern ofthe Li₂MnO₃ product is consistent with that expected for itscharacteristic layered-type structure. The X-ray diffraction pattern ofthe “Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-450” product shows additional peaks centered atapproximately 44 and 63 degrees 2θ, consistent with either an integratedstructure or a combination of structures comprising Li₂MnO₃, inaccordance with the principles of this invention. These additional peakscorrespond closely to those expected for the rock salt phase NiO orpossibly a Li-substituted Li_(x)Ni_(1−x)O phase, in which x can besmall, for example, less than 0.1. X-ray absorption data havedemonstrated that the nickel ions appear to exist in this compoundpredominantly in the divalent state. For Li_(x)Ni_(1−x)O compositionsthat contain Ni²⁺ and Ni³⁺ ions, it is anticipated that lithium will beextracted electrochemically in an electrochemical cell, to yield alithium deficient component, Li_(x−y)Ni_(1−x)O, in which y≦x.

The X-ray diffraction pattern of the “Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-850” product inFIG. 4, trace (d) is typical of a ‘layered-layered’ composite structurewith the targeted composition 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂. Thisexample, therefore demonstrates the general principle and versatility ofthe approach described herein, in that improved and modifiedLi₂MnO₃-based lithium-metal-oxide composite electrode structures andproducts can be synthesized simply by reacting Li₂MnO₃ with an acidicsolution containing the metal ions, which are required for a particularelectrode composition, and annealing the dried product at an appropriatetemperature to optimize the structural properties and compositionalparameters for optimum electrochemical performance. Furthermore, thesynthesis approach taught herein includes the selection and addition ofions in the acidic solution, such as F⁻ ions and PO₄ ³⁻ ions, which canprovide surface protection for the composite electrode structures whencycled in lithium cells. In this respect, the advantages of thisone-step approach to synthesize surface protected composite electrodestructures from a Li₂MnO₃ precursor are illustrated by the examplesprovided in this invention.

FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 respectively illustrate the electrochemical propertiesof the Li₂MnO₃ and Li₂MnO₃—Ni products when used as electrodes inlithium cells, constructed in accordance with the general procedureoutlined for Example 3. The top panel of FIG. 5 shows the typicalcharge/discharge voltage profiles of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ cell for the 1st, 4th,and 8th cycles. The capacity of the Li₂MnO₃ electrode increased steadilyfrom about 80 mAh/g to about 120 mAh/g over these cycles. Thecorresponding dQ/dV plots for these cycles are shown in the bottom panelof FIG. 5. The plots are characterized by two strong reduction peaks,the reversible peak below about 2.8 V, which increases on cycling, beingattributed to the formation and growth of a spinel phase on cycling.

The corresponding voltage profiles and dQ/dV plots for a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—)Ni-450 cell of the present invention are shown in the respective top andbottom panels of FIG. 6. It is clear from the top panel of FIG. 6 thatthe Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-450 electrode of the invention provided asignificantly higher capacity than the Li₂MnO₃ electrode, yielding aninitial capacity of approximately 165 mAh/g, which increased toapproximately 225 mAh/g over the first five cycles. The dQ/dV plot ofthis cell is surprisingly different to that of the cell containing theLi₂MnO₃ electrode, in that the cell of the invention unexpectedlyafforded only one major, reversible reduction peak above about 3 V,which strongly suggests that the electrode of the invention has asignificant advantage over the comparative Li₂MnO₃ electrode bysuppressing the formation of a spinel phase on cycling, therebyproviding superior electrochemical capacity. This finding issignificant. Analysis of the X-ray diffraction and X-ray absorption dataof the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-450 electrode powder before and after cyclingindicated that the electrode is comprised of layered Li₂MnO₃-likeregions and rock salt NiO-type regions. Moreover, the electrochemicaldata show a continuously sloping voltage profile that maintains itsshape on cycling, thereby indicating that there is negligibletransformation of the layered component to spinel. This inventiontherefore extends specifically to include precursor electrodes thatcomprise, at least as one component of the precursor electrode, acomposite Li₂MnO₃-MO rock salt structure in which M is a divalent metalcation, selected preferably from the first row transition metalelements, such as Ti, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni. In a further embodiment, theMO component in the precursor electrode structure can be partiallysubstituted by lithium, yielding rock salt components or regionsLi_(x)M′_(1−x)O (0<x<0.5; M′ is one or more metal ions other than Li)and that may be either stoichiometric or lithium deficient with formulaLi_(x−y)M′_(1−x)O in which y≦x. In yet a further embodiment of theinvention, the Li₂MnO₃ and MO components are integrated or combined withone or more other components with spinel and/or layered-type structures.

FIG. 7 shows voltage profiles (top) and dQ/dV plots (bottom) for aLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni-850 cell of the present invention with targetedcomposition 0.5Li₂MnO₃0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂, when cycled between about2.0 and 5.0 V after being subject first to 50 cycles between about 2.0and 4.6 V. During these initial 50 cycles, a stable capacity of about234 mAh/g was delivered by the cell with minimal change to the overallshape of the charge/discharge voltage profiles, indicating negligibleconversion to spinel, despite the high Mn content in the compositeelectrode structure. Despite being charged a further 10 times at moreextreme charging conditions (to about 5 V), the electrode yielded anunexpectedly high capacity of about 275 mAh/g with more than 99%coulombic efficiency with no significant changes in the dQ/dV plotsduring these 10 cycles. These surprising data therefore provide evidenceof the strong, structural integrity of the cathode material, gainedinherently from novel features in the structure and character of theelectrode precursor and in the synthesis methods described in thisinvention. In particular, the results in FIG. 7 show remarkable capacityretention and minimal voltage decay, despite being continuously chargedfor ten cycles to 5.0 V at room temperature, emphasizing the novelty andadvantages of the materials of this invention and the processes by whichthey are made.

FIG. 8 shows the typical voltage profiles obtained at three differentrates of discharge, 30 mA/g, 75 mA/g and 150 mA/g, from a Li/Li₂MnO₃_(—) Ni-850 cell when cycled between about 4.6 and 2.0 V. At the highestrate, 150 mA/g, which corresponds approximately to a C/1.3 rate, theelectrode delivered a capacity close to 200 mAh/g.

This example therefore emphasizes that the annealing step is crucial incontrolling and tailoring the electrode structures of this invention andtheir electrochemical properties.

Example 5

A Ni-containing Li₂MnO₃ powder was prepared as described above inExample 4 by adjusting the amount of Ni nitrate in the acidic solutionto target a product with composition 0.2Li₂MnO₃.0.8LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂,i.e., the Li:Mn:Ni ratio in the Li₂MnO₃/nitric acid solution was about1.20:0.60:0.40. The product was annealed at about 850° C. prior toelectrochemical evaluation in the lithium cell, and is labeled Li₂MnO₃_(—) Ni-2-850. FIG. 9 shows voltage profiles of the Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—)Ni-2-850 cell cycled between about 2.0 and 4.6 V. The cell deliversabout 210 mAh/g at a C/14 rate with a first cycle efficiency of about86%. The relatively high first cycle efficiency of this cell, as well asthe high initial discharge capacity of the cathode (>200 mAh/g)demonstrates a significant advantage of electrodes of this invention andthe method of preparing the electrodes from a Li₂MnO₃ precursor or ahydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide precursor derived therefrom; theresults from this example indicate that it should be possible to tailorthe composition of Li₂MnO₃-stabilized composite electrode structures andto reduce significantly the first-cycle irreversible capacity lossincurred by the electrochemical activation process that typically occursabove 4.4 V.

Example 6

Li₂Mn_(0.9)Ti_(0.1)O₃ was prepared by the following general procedure:TiC₁₂H₂₈O₄ (titanium isopropoxide) and MnCO₃ precursors were added to anaqueous solution of LiOH.H₂O in the required stoichiometric amount andstirred for about 45 minutes to 1 hour. The liquid from the solution wasevaporated at approximately 80° C., and a solid product was collectedand ground to a powder. The powder was then annealed at about 450° C.for about 30 hours in air.

The Li₂Mn_(0.9)Ti_(0.1)O₃ precursor was then reacted with nickel nitratein a 0.1 M solution of HNO₃ to target a product with composition0.5Li₂Mn_(0.9)Ti_(0.1)O₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂, i.e., the Li:Mn:Ni:Tiratio in the Li₂MnO₃/nitric acid solution was about 1.50:0.70:0.25:0.05,and stirred overnight at room temperature. The liquid from the solutionwas evaporated at approximately 70° C., and the resulting solid productwas collected and ground to a powder. The powder was then annealed atabout 450° C. for about 6 hours in air and labeled Li₂Mn_(0.9)Ti_(0.1)O₃_(—) Ni.

The voltage profiles of a Li/Li₂Mn_(0.9)Ti_(0.1)O₃ _(—) Ni cell areshown in FIG. 10. The capacity of the electrode increased from about 170mAh/g to 200 mAh/g where it remained stable at greater than 99%efficiency on further cycling.

Example 7

A Ni- and Co-containing Li₂MnO₃ powder was prepared as described abovein Example 4 by adjusting the amount of Ni and Co nitrates in the acidicsolution to target a product with composition0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.4)Ni_(0.4)Co_(0.2)O₂, i.e., the Li:Mn:Ni:Co ratioin the Li₂MnO₃/nitric acid solution was about 1.50:0.70:0.20:0.10. Theproduct was annealed at about 450° C. prior to electrochemicalevaluation in the lithium cell, and is labeled Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiCo. FIG.11 shows voltage profiles of the Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiCo cell cycledbetween about 2.0 and 4.6 V. The first cycle cycling efficiency wasabout 85% and more than 98% thereafter. The cell delivers over 220 mAh/gat a rate of about 15 mA/g for more than 10 cycles, demonstrating theutility of the invention.

Example 8

The Li₂MnO₃ precursor of Example 4 was reacted with manganese acetate,Mn(CH₃COO)₂.4H₂O in a 0.1M solution of HNO₃ to target a ‘layered-spinel’product with approximate composition 0.8Li₂MnO₃.0.2LiMn₂O₄ using a Li:Mnratio in the Li₂MnO₃/nitric acid solution of about 1.5:1.0, and stirredovernight at room temperature. The liquid from the solution wasevaporated at approximately 70° C., and the resulting solid product wascollected and ground to a powder. The powder was then annealed at about450° C. for about 6 hours in air and labeled Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Mn.

The voltage profiles of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Mn cell are shown in FIG. 12(top), and corresponding dQ/dV plots in FIG. 12 (bottom). Cells werecycled between about 2.0 and 4.6 V. The voltage profile and dQ/dV plotsare both consistent with the electrochemical behavior of alayered-spinel composite electrode structure, as evident from theelectrochemical processes around 4 V and the flat voltage plateau atabout 3 V, characteristic of the spinel component, and the steadilychanging discharge voltage between about 3.7 V and about 3 V, which ischaracteristic of a layered component. The first cycle efficiency wasabout 94%, the discharge capacity and coulombic efficiency increasing oncycling from about 147 to 180 mAh/g and 94 to 98%, respectively, overthe first 9 cycles, thereby demonstrating the utility of the invention.

Example 9

A Co_(0.5)Mn_(0.5)CO₃ precursor was first prepared by reacting therequired amounts of cobalt sulfate heptahydrate and manganese sulfatemonohydrate in an aqueous solution of ammonium hydrogen carbonate toyield a Co_(0.5)Mn_(0.5)CO₃ precipitate that was subsequently driedovernight at about 100° C. Li₂CO₃ was then mechanically mixed with thedried Co_(0.5)Mn_(0.5)CO₃ precursor using a Li:Co:Mn ratio of about1.5:0.5:0.5 before being annealed in air at 550° C. for 24 hours. Thesample was subsequently cooled to room temperature before being heatedat 850° C. for 12 hours to yield a product with the targeted composition0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiCoO₂. Thereafter, the product was immersed in a coatingsolution consisting of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, glycolic acid,nickel nitrate and lithium nitrate using a Li:Ni:P ratio of about 1:1:1and a targeted Li—N₁—PO₄ mass of about 4 to 5% of the0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiCoO₂ product, and then heated to dryness atapproximately 60 to 70° C. The Li—Ni—PO₄ coated product was finallyannealed at about 550° C. prior to electrochemical evaluation in thelithium cell, and is labeled Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Co_LiNiPO₄. FIG. 13 (top)shows the initial voltage profile of the Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Co_LiNiPO₄ cellcycled between about 2.0 and 4.6 V, and FIG. 13 (bottom) the capacityvs. cycle number for the initial 80 cycles. The cycling efficiency wasabout 82% on the first cycle, about 100% after 40 cycles and about 99%after 80 cycles. The cell delivered more than 200 mAh/g after 40 cyclesand more than 190 mAh/g after 80 cycles at a rate of about 15 mA/g.

Alternatively, a Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Co_LiNiPO₄ material of this invention canbe prepared as follows: A Co-containing Li₂MnO₃ powder is prepared asdescribed in Example 4 by adjusting the amount of cobalt nitrate in theacidic solution to target the composition 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiCoO₂, i.e.,the Li:Mn:Co ratio in the Li₂MnO₃/nitric acid solution is about1.50:0.50:0.50. At the same time, a small amount of lithium nitrate,nickel nitrate and NH₄(H₂)PO₄ with a Li:Ni:P ratio of about 1:1:1,constituting about 4 to 5% of the mass of the targeted0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiCoO₂ product is added to the starting solution tosimultaneously participate in the reaction to form the phosphate-basedcoating on the product particles. The product is then annealed at about550° C. prior to electrochemical evaluation in the lithium cell.Similarly, a Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Co_Li₃PO₄ or Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Co_LiF electrodematerial can be prepared by adding the required amounts of Li⁺, PO₄ ³⁻and F⁻ ions to the starting solution. These processes demonstrate theutility of this invention and, in particular, that composite electrodematerials with protective coating constituents can be manufactured in asingle step by contacting a Li₂MnO₃ precursor with additionalstabilizing metal cations and/or anions in an acidic solution, followedby (1) heat-treating the resulting product to form the powdered metaloxide composition; and (2) forming an electrode from the powdered metaloxide composition.

Example 10

A Li₂MnO₃ product containing nickel with a targeted composition of0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂ was prepared as in Example 4 abovewith the exception that an amount of NH₄F was added to the solution,simultaneously with the Ni nitrate, so that the total amount of F in thefinal product was about 2.5 mol % with respect to all metals (i.e. Li,Mn, Ni). The dried powders were collected, ground, and annealed at 450°C. and 850° C. for 6 hours in air. Samples are labeled as Li₂MnO₃ _(—)NiF-450 and Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiF-850, respectively.

The voltage profiles and corresponding dQ/dV plots of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—)NiF-450 cell for the 1^(st), 4^(th) and 9^(th) cycles are shown in FIG.14, top and bottom panels, respectively. Cells were cycled between 2.0and 4.6 V at a 15 mA/g rate. The first cycle efficiency of this cell wasabout 87% which is significantly higher than typically delivered bycells containing conventional Li₂MnO₃-based composite electrodestructures. The 10-cycle average discharge capacity of the fluorinatedLi₂MnO₃ _(—) NiF-450 cathode was about 220 mAh/g.

The voltage profiles and corresponding dQ/dV plots of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—)NiF-850 cell for the 1^(st), 4^(th), and 9th cycles are shown in FIG.15. Cells were cycled between 2.0 and 4.6 V at a 15 mA/g rate. The firstcycle efficiency of this cell was about 80% with a first cycle chargecapacity of about 296 mAh/g and subsequent discharge capacity of about236 mAh/g. The Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiF-850 cathode provided an averagedischarge capacity of about 248 mAh/g.

These observations, along with the excellent stability of the dischargeprocess as demonstrated in particular by the dQ/dV data in FIG. 14 thatshows a predominant discharge process slightly above 3 V, demonstratethe flexibility of the method of this invention in preparinghigh-capacity and stabilized cathode materials.

Example 11

A precursor with a nominal composition of Li₁.95Na_(0.05)MnO₃ wasprepared by the following general procedure: MnCO₃ and Na₂CO₃ were addedto an aqueous solution of LiOH.H₂O in the required stoichiometric amountand stirred for about 45 minutes to 1 hour. The liquid from the solutionwas evaporated at approximately 80° C., and a solid product wascollected and ground to a powder. The powder was then annealed at about450° C. for about 30 hours in air. Subsequently, a Ni containing productwith a Ni:Mn ratio of 1:3 was prepared from the Na-containing Li₂MnO₃precursor, as described in Example 4, and annealed at 850° C. in air for6 hours. These samples are labeled as Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NaNi.

FIG. 16 shows the voltage profiles of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NaNi cell forthe 1^(st), 5^(th) and 10^(th) cycles. Cells were cycled between 2.0 and4.6 V at a 15 mA/g rate. The first cycle efficiency was about 83%; the10-cycle average discharge capacity of the Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NaNi cathode wasabout 250 mAh/g. This example also clearly demonstrates the utility ofthe preparation method in synthesizing high capacity and stable cathodematerials of this invention.

Example 12

A precursor with a nominal composition of Li_(1−x)Mg_(x/2)MnO₃ (x=0.05)was prepared as in Example 11 using stoichiometric amounts of MnCO₃ andMg(NO₃)₂.6H₂O in an aqueous solution of LiOH.H₂O. The dried powder wasground and subsequently annealed at 450° C. in air for about 30 hours. ANi containing product with a Ni:Mn ratio of 1:3 was prepared from theMg-containing Li₂MnO₃ precursor, as described in Example 4, and annealedat 450° C. in air for 6 hours. Samples are labeled as Li₂MnO₃ _(—) MgNi(5%).

The top and bottom panels in FIG. 17 show the voltage profiles andcorresponding dQ/dV plots, respectively, for the 1^(st), 5^(th) and10^(th) cycles of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) MgNi (5%) cell. Cells were cycledbetween 2.0 and 4.6 V at a 15 mA/g rate. The first cycle efficiencysurprisingly was about 98% with the discharge capacity increasing toabout 210 mAh/g after 10 cycles. Of additional significance is thestabilization of the discharge process at about 3.2V, as indicated bythe dashed line in the dQ/dV plots of FIG. 17 (bottom panel).

Example 13

The Li₂MnO₃ precursor, prepared as in Example 4, was reacted withstoichiometric amounts of Co nitrate and Ni nitrate to target alithium-rich product having the approximate composition ofLi_(1.05)Mn_(0.52)Ni_(0.32)Co_(0.11)O₂. The final, dried powder wasannealed in air at 450° C. for 6 hours and is labeled as Li₂MnO₃ _(—)NiCo-2.

FIG. 18 shows the voltage profiles of the 1^(st), 5^(th) and 10^(th)cycles of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiCo-2 cell (top) and corresponding dQ/dVplots (bottom). Cells were cycled between 2.0 and 4.6 V at a 15 mA/grate. The first cycle efficiency of this cell (about 88%) was excellent,with a first cycle charge capacity of about 281 mAh/g and subsequentdischarge capacity of about 247 mAh/g. The 10-cycle average dischargecapacity of the cathode was about 243 mAh/g. The dQ/dV plots for thiscell (FIG. 18, bottom) revealed characteristic peaks of an evolvingspinel phase on cycling as indicated by the arrowed peaks on charge anddischarge, resulting in high capacity electrode products with‘layered-spinel’ character.

This example is particularly noteworthy because it demonstrates asignificantly lower first-cycle capacity loss (12%) compared tostate-of-the-art composite electrode structures and compositions, suchas the 38% first-cycle capacity loss of a0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.33)Ni_(0.33)Co_(0.33)O₂ electrode reported byJohnson et al. in Electrochemistry Communications, Volume 9, page 787(2007). This improvement is particularly important because itillustrates that the materials of this invention can significantlyminimize the extent of electrochemical activation above 4.5 V, therebyreducing surface damage to the electrode particles and enhancingelectrochemical performance without compromising the exceptionally highcapacities delivered by these composite electrodes relative tostate-of-the art-electrode materials such as layered LiCoO₂, spinelLiMn₂O₄, and olivine LiFePO₄ and their analogues that typically providecapacities of about 160-170 mAh/g or lower.

Example 14

The Li₂MnO₃ precursor was prepared as in Example 4 using stoichiometricamounts of MnCO₃ in an aqueous solution of LiOH.H₂O. The dried powderwas ground and subsequently annealed at about 450° C. in air for about30 hours. An Al containing product with a Ni:Mn ratio of 1:3 and totalAl content of 2% by weight was prepared from a mixture of Ni nitrate andAl nitrate, similar to the procedure described in Example 4, andannealed at about 450° C. in air for about 6 hours; the targetcomposition of this product was Li_(1.16)Mn_(0.58)Ni_(0.19)Al_(0.06)O₂(in standard layered notation). This sample is labeled Li₂MnO₃ _(—)NiAl.

FIGS. 19 (a) and (b) show the voltage profiles and the correspondingdQ/dV plots for a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiAl cell. The first cycle efficiencywas about 88% with the discharge capacity increasing on cycling to about210 mAh/g; being then maintained for 50 cycles. This example confirmsthe utility of this invention and, in particular, the low first-cycleirreversible capacity loss and long-term cycling stability of Li₂MnO₃_(—) NiAl composite electrodes.

Example 15

Stoichiometrically required amounts of MnCO₃ and Li₂CO₃ were thoroughlymixed and annealed in air at about 450° C. for about 72 hours to preparethe Li₂MnO₃ precursor; this sample is labeled C—Li₂MnO₃. A Li₂MnO₃product containing nickel with a targeted composition0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂, labeled C—Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni wasprepared by the same procedure described in Example 4. FIG. 20( a) showsthe typical voltage profiles of a Li/C—Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni cell when cycledbetween 4.6 and 2.0 V for cycles 31, 37 and 45. These data arecomparable to, and are in good agreement with, those obtained for theLi/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) Ni_(—)850 cell in FIG. 7 (top), which had been cycledunder a wider voltage window (5.0 to 2.0 V). The discharge profiles inFIG. 20( a) represent the last 15 ‘break-in’ cycles before the operatingwindow was narrowed to 4.4-2.5 V. The average capacity delivered by theelectrode between 4.6 and 2.0 V is exceptional, i.e., about 280 mAh/g.FIG. 20( b) shows the voltage profile of the cell when cycled over thenarrower range (4.4-2.5 V) whereas FIG. 20( c) shows the correspondingdQ/dV plots for this cell. In this case, the delivered rechargeablecapacity is reduced slightly to about 245 mAh/g. The data endorse theremarkably high rechargeable capacity and cycling stability of thesecomposite electrode structures, when synthesized by the method of thisinvention. This example therefore reiterates the importance of usingLi₂MnO₃ as a precursor and structural template for the synthesis ofimproved composite electrode structures and their electrochemicalproperties. Significant advantages of the invention include minimizationof the electrochemical activation process, the suppression of thevoltage decay phenomenon, enhanced cycling stability while deliveringexceptionally high electrochemical capacities of about 245 mAh/g ormore.

Example 16

A Li₂MnO₃ precursor was prepared as in Example 15 with carbonateprecursors. A Li₂MnO₃ product 0.5Li₂MnO₃.0.5LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂containing about 10% excess lithium (with respect to the precursorLi₂MnO₃) was prepared following the procedure described in Example 4 togive a Li:Mn molar ratio in the final composite electrode product ofabout 2.13 and a Li:(Mn+Ni) molar ratio of about 1.6; the targetedcomposition of this example, in two-component notation, is thereforeabout 0.476Li₂MnO₃.0.524Li_(1.09)Mn_(0.455)Ni_(0.455)O₂ this sample islabeled Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiLi. FIG. 21 (a) shows the typical voltageprofiles of a Li/Li₂MnO₃ _(—) NiLi cell when cycled between 4.6 and 2.0V for cycles 10, 20, and 30, and (b) corresponding dQ/dV plots of thecell. The average capacity delivered by the electrode between 4.6 and2.0 V, after an initial 10 formation cycles, is approximately 230 mAh/g.The data show high rechargeable capacity and cycling stability oncontinued cycling over a wide voltage window (4.6-2.0 V). This exampledemonstrates the importance and versatility of using Li₂MnO₃ as astructural template for the synthesis of unique, composite structureswith excellent electrochemical properties, particularly their cyclingstability when charged at high voltages.

Electrochemical Cells and Batteries.

A detailed schematic illustration of an electrochemical cell 10 of theinvention is shown in FIG. 22. Cell 10 comprises negative electrode 12separated from positive electrode 16 by an electrolyte 14, all containedin insulating housing 18 with suitable terminals (not shown) beingprovided in electronic contact with negative electrode 12 and positiveelectrode 16 of the invention. Positive electrode 16 comprises metalliccollector plate 15 and active layer 17 comprising the metal-insertedhydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material as described herein. Bindersand other materials, such as carbon, normally associated with both theelectrolyte and the negative and positive electrodes are well known inthe art and are not described herein, but are included as is understoodby those of ordinary skill in this art. FIG. 23 provides a schematicillustration of one example of a battery in which two strings ofelectrochemical sodium cells 10, described above, are arranged inparallel, each string comprising three cells 10 arranged in series.

The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in thecontext of describing the invention (especially in the context of thefollowing claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and theplural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted bycontext. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing”are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning “including, butnot limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of valuesherein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referringindividually to each separate value falling within the range, unlessotherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated intothe specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methodsdescribed herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwiseindicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The useof any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”)provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the inventionand does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unlessotherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construedas indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice ofthe invention.

Preferred embodiments of this invention are described herein, includingthe best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention.Variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to thoseof ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. Theinventors expect skilled artisans to employ such variations asappropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practicedotherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, thisinvention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subjectmatter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicablelaw. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in allpossible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unlessotherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.

1. A positive electrode for an electrochemical cell, the electrode beingformed by a method comprising: (a) contacting ahydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material with one or more metal ions toinsert the one or more metal ions into thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material; (b) heat-treating theresulting product to form a powdered metal oxide composition; and (c)forming an electrode from the powdered metal oxide composition; whereinthe powdered metal oxide composition has a layered-type structure, aspinel-type structure, a rock salt-type structure, or an integratedstructure comprising one or more of these structure types.
 2. Thepositive electrode of claim 1 in which thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material comprises hydrogen, lithium,manganese, and oxygen ions, and the oxygen ions are arranged inalternating layers of octahedra and trigonal prisms in the crystalstructure of the material.
 3. The positive electrode of claim 1 whereinthe hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material in step (a) is formed bycontacting a lithium-manganese-oxide precursor compound with a solutioncomprising an acid and the one or more metal ions, and the one or moremetal ions are inserted into the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxidematerial during the formation thereof; wherein the precursor compoundcomprises lithium, manganese, and oxygen ions in a layered-typestructure wherein lithium ions occupy octahedral sites in lithium-richlayers, and the lithium and manganese ions occupy octahedral sites inmanganese-rich layers that alternate with the lithium-rich layers. 4.The positive electrode of claim 3 wherein the electrode contains cationor anion defects and/or stacking faults and dislocations.
 5. Thepositive electrode of claim 3 wherein the precursor compound comprisesLi₂MnO₃ or Li[Li_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, and optionally includes up to 25 atompercent of one or more other metal ions.
 6. The positive electrode ofclaim 3 wherein the solution comprising the acid and the one or moremetal ions also includes one or more metalloid-containing ions,non-metal containing ions, or a combination thereof.
 7. The positiveelectrode of claim 1 wherein the manganese and non-lithium metal ionsare partially disordered between lithium-rich layers and manganese-richlayers.
 8. The positive electrode of claim 1 wherein the one or moremetal ions are selected from the group consisting of an alkali metalion, an alkaline earth metal ion, and a transition metal ion.
 9. Thepositive electrode of claim 1 wherein a surface of the electrode, theindividual particles of the powdered metal oxide composition, or both,comprises a coating that includes at least one material selected fromthe group consisting of a metal oxide, a metal fluoride, and a metalpolyanionic material.
 10. The positive electrode of claim 9 wherein thecoating comprises at least one material selected from the groupconsisting of (a) lithium fluoride, (b) aluminum fluoride, (c) alithium-metal-oxide in which the metal is selected from the groupconsisting of Al and Zr, (d) a lithium-metal-phosphate in which themetal is selected from the group consisting of Fe, Mn, Co, and Ni, and(e) a lithium-metal-silicate comprising a metal selected from the groupcomprising Al and Zr.
 11. The positive electrode of claim 1 wherein thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material also includes up to 25 atompercent of one or more other transition metal ions replacing manganeseions, lithium ions, or a combination thereof in a manganese-rich layerof the material.
 12. The positive electrode of claim 11 wherein the oneor more other transition metal ions comprises a Ti ion, a Zr ion, a Coion, a Ni ion, or a combination thereof.
 13. The positive electrode ofclaim 3 wherein the precursor compound is prepared by the reaction ofone or more lithium salts, one or more manganese salts, and optionallyone or more other metal salts at elevated temperature in air.
 14. Thepositive electrode of claim 13 wherein the salts are selected from thegroup consisting of carbonates, hydroxides, nitrates, and isopropoxides.15. The positive electrode of claim 13 wherein the elevated temperatureis in the range of about 450 to about 550° C.
 16. A positive electrodefor an electrochemical cell, the electrode comprising a compositeelectrode structure containing Li₂MnO₃ and MO components in which Mcomprises one or more metal cations.
 17. The positive electrode of claim16 wherein M comprises one or more of Ti, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni.
 18. Thepositive electrode of claim 16 wherein the MO component has the formulaLi_(x)M′_(1−x)O in which 0<x<0.5 and M′ comprises one or more metal ionsother than lithium.
 19. The positive electrode of claim 16 wherein theMO component has the formula Li_(x−y)M′_(1−x)O in which 0<x<0.5 and M′comprises one or more metal ions other than lithium, and y≦x.
 20. Thepositive electrode of claim 16 wherein the Li₂MnO₃ and MO components areintegrated with or combined with one or more other components having aspinel-type structure, a layered-type structure, or both.
 21. Thepositive electrode of claim 20 wherein the Li₂MnO₃ and MO componentshave disordered or partially disordered structures, and optionallyinclude stacking faults, dislocations, or a combination thereof.
 22. Thepositive electrode of claim 16 wherein a surface of the electrode, theindividual particles of the powdered metal oxide composition, or both,comprises a coating that includes at least one material selected fromthe group consisting of a metal oxide, a metal fluoride, and a metalpolyanionic material.
 23. The positive electrode of claim 22 wherein thecoating comprises at least one material selected from the groupconsisting of (a) lithium fluoride, (b) aluminum fluoride, (c) alithium-metal-oxide in which the metal is selected from the groupconsisting of Al and Zr, (d) a lithium-metal-phosphate in which themetal is selected from the group consisting of Fe, Mn, Co, and Ni, and(e) a lithium-metal-silicate comprising a metal selected from the groupcomprising Al and Zr.
 24. An electrochemical cell comprising thepositive electrode of claim 16, a negative electrode, and a lithiumcontaining an electrolyte therebetween, and the negative electrodeoptionally comprises a metal selected from the group consisting oflithium, sodium, magnesium, zinc, and aluminum.
 25. A battery comprisinga plurality of electrochemical cells of claim 24 arranged in parallel,in series, or both.
 26. An electrochemical cell comprising the positiveelectrode of claim 1, a negative electrode, and a lithium containing anelectrolyte therebetween, and the negative electrode optionallycomprises a metal selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium,magnesium, zinc, and aluminum.
 27. A battery comprising a plurality ofelectrochemical cells of claim 26 arranged in parallel, in series, orboth.
 28. A method for fabricating a positive electrode comprising: (a)contacting a hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material with one or moremetal ions to insert the one or more metal ions into thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material; wherein the one or more metalions optionally comprises manganese and nickel in combination withlithium ions. (b) heat-treating the resulting product to form a powderedmetal oxide composition; and (c) forming an electrode from the powderedmetal oxide composition.
 29. The method of claim 28 wherein thehydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxide material in step (a) is formed bycontacting a lithium-manganese-oxide precursor compound with a solutioncomprising an acid and the one or more metal ions, and the one or moremetal ions are inserted into the hydrogen-lithium-manganese-oxidematerial during the formation thereof; wherein the precursor compoundcomprises lithium, manganese, and oxygen ions in a layered-typestructure wherein lithium ions occupy octahedral sites in lithium-richlayers, and the lithium and manganese ions occupy octahedral sites inmanganese-rich layers that alternate with the lithium-rich layers.
 30. Apositive electrode formed by the method of claim
 28. 31. Anelectrochemical cell comprising the positive electrode of claim 30, anegative electrode, and a lithium containing electrolyte therebetween,32. A battery comprising a plurality of electrochemical cells of claim31 arranged in parallel, in series, or both.